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Unit 4Nuclear Weapons 1 - Technology, Materials, Testing and MonitoringChapter 6: Summary
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  1. 1. Introduction
  2. 2. Basic Nuclear Physics
  3. 3. Nuclear Weapons
  4. 4. Armament and Disarmament
  5. 5. Monitoring
  6. 6. Summary
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Chapter 6

Summary

Since their origins during World War II, with the evolution of technology, nuclear weapons have become more precise, reliable, destructive and smaller.

Although nuclear weapons testing has historically been a key aspect of developing and validating new weapon designs, subcritical tests and computer simulations have largely replaced live tests, allowing for the continued refinement of nuclear arsenals without actual detonations. Even though the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) has not yet fully entered into force, it has led to a de facto moratorium on nuclear testing by major powers.

The primary materials used in nuclear weapons are plutonium-239 and highly enriched uranium (HEU). The production of these materials involves complex processes, including uranium enrichment and plutonium reprocessing. Beyond the control and monitoring of nuclear weapons, the control and monitoring of nuclear materials and activities is essential for arms control and non-proliferation. International frameworks like the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and organisations such as the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and EURATOM play crucial roles in verification and compliance.

Currently, there are five recognised nuclear weapon states – the United States, Russia, France, the United Kingdom and China – and four other states with nuclear weapon capabilities – India, Pakistan, Israel and North Korea. Although the real numbers of nuclear weapons are considered national secrets by the states, the global military stockpile is estimated to be higher than 12,000 nuclear warheads. Nuclear disarmament seems to be out of reach, as states are still investing a lot of money in maintaining and modernising their nuclear arsenals.

While the near future of nuclear weapons technology will likely focus on further advancements in delivery systems, advances in technology promise enhanced monitoring and verification capabilities for treaties and agreements on nuclear weapons control and disarmament in the more distant future.

Further information

  • International Panel on Fissile Materials (IPFM) – fissilematerials.org
    This site brings together top scientists and technical experts to analyze global stocks of fissile material and options for securing or eliminating them. Its research is technical, accessible, and central to understanding the nuts and bolts of disarmament.

  • James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies (CNS) – nonproliferation.org
    CNS offers detailed technical and open-source analysis of nuclear weapons programs, with a strong focus on innovation in verification and monitoring. Their tools and satellite imagery work are particularly valuable for students.

  • Federation of American Scientists (FAS) – fas.org
    FAS provides data-rich reports and analysis on nuclear arsenals, delivery systems, and the science behind arms control. Their Nuclear Notebook series is a must-read for technically inclined disarmament followers.

  • Los Alamos National Laboratory – lanl.gov
    While not focused on disarmament, LANL is a key player in U.S. nuclear science and often publishes technical papers on verification and detection technologies. It’s essential for understanding the capabilities and limits of current monitoring methods.

  • Sandia National Laboratories – sandia.gov
    Sandia conducts cutting-edge work on nuclear security, warhead dismantlement, and verification tech. Great for diving into engineering-level discussions on disarmament tools.

  • Arms Control Wonk – armscontrolwonk.com
    A technical blog and podcast run by experts that breaks down nuclear tests, satellite imagery, missile tracking, and more. Informal but incredibly detailed, it’s perfect for students who want both depth and real-world application.

  • IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency) – iaea.org
    The IAEA is the heart of international nuclear verification. Its publications and safeguards reports give direct insight into how civilian nuclear programs are monitored—tech-heavy and indispensable.

  • NTI (Nuclear Threat Initiative) – nti.org
    NTI bridges technical depth with accessible tools and datasets, including their Nuclear Security Index. It’s ideal for understanding global vulnerabilities and efforts to reduce nuclear risks.

  • Science & Global Security (SGS) Journal – scienceandglobalsecurity.org
    This peer-reviewed journal is packed with technical studies on disarmament verification, nuclear weapons physics, and policy-relevant science. A goldmine for students looking to publish or understand high-level debates.

More information on how each of the CTBTO stations work can be found here:

The EU Non-Proliferation and Disarmament eLearning Course aims to cover all aspects of the EU non-proliferation and disarmament agenda. It's produced by PRIF with financial assistance of the European Union. The contents of individual learning units are the sole responsibility of the respective authors and don't necessariy reflect the position of the European Union.